Quantum dot-sensitized solar cell and method of making the same

ABSTRACT

The quantum dot-sensitized solar cell (QDSSC) includes a photoelectrode, a counter electrode, and an electrolyte sandwiched between the photoelectrode and the counter electrode. The photoelectrode is formed from a titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) layer, a cadmium sulfide (CdS) quantum dot sensitizer layer, and a tin dioxide (SnO 2 ) nanograss layer sandwiched between the titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) layer and the cadmium sulfide (CdS) quantum dot sensitizer layer.

BACKGROUND 1. Field

The disclosure of the present patent application relates to quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSSCs), and particularly to a quantum dot-sensitized solar cell having a photoelectrode which includes a tin dioxide (SnO₂) nanograss buffer layer.

2. Description of the Related Art

There is presently great interest in third-generation solar cells, such as quantum dot sensitized solar cells (QDSSCs), due to their inorganic structures, high theoretical efficiencies, ease of fabrication and relative low cost. Various metal chalcogenide-semiconductors, such as CdS, CdSe, PbS, CdSe_(x)S_(1-x), CuInS₂, CuInZn_(S), etc. have been investigated as promising sensitizers for the QDSSCs due to their tunable band gap, high absorption coefficient and multiple exciton generation (MEG). A typical structure of the QDSSC is composed of a QD-sensitized TiO₂ photoelectrode, a polysulfide electrolyte (S²⁻/Sn²⁻), and a counter electrode, which leads to various hetero-interfaces. Although quantum dots (QDs) have unique characteristics, thus far, QDSSCs have achieved a low power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 12%, due to the recombination of charges that occur at the photoanode/QDs/electrolyte interfaces. Due to the potential that QDSSCs show, it would be desirable to be able to overcome this limitation. Thus, a quantum dot-sensitized solar cell and a method of making the same solving the aforementioned problems are desired.

SUMMARY

The quantum dot-sensitized solar cell (QDSSC) includes a photoelectrode, a counter electrode, and an electrolyte sandwiched between the photoelectrode and the counter electrode. The photoelectrode is formed from a titanium dioxide (TiO₂) layer, a cadmium sulfide (CdS) quantum dot sensitizer layer, and a tin dioxide (SnO₂) nanograss layer sandwiched between the titanium dioxide (TiO₂) layer and the cadmium sulfide (CdS) quantum dot sensitizer layer. As non-limiting examples, the counter electrode may be made of copper sulfide (CuS), and the electrolyte may be a polysulfide electrolyte.

The quantum dot-sensitized solar cell is made by applying a titanium dioxide paste on a fluorine-doped tin oxide substrate. The titanium dioxide paste and the fluorine-doped tin oxide substrate are heated to form a mesoporous titanium dioxide electrode. Tin dioxide nanograss is then grown on the mesoporous titanium dioxide electrode using chemical bath deposition to form a pre-loaded electrode. The cadmium sulfide quantum dots are loaded on the pre-loaded electrode using successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction cycles to form the photoelectrode. The electrolyte is then sandwiched between the photoelectrode and the counter electrode.

These and other features of the present subject matter will become readily apparent upon further review of the following specification.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a side view in section of a quantum dot-sensitized solar cell.

FIG. 2 shows X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns for titanium dioxide (TiO₂) and tin dioxide nanograss (SnO₂ NGs) grown on TiO₂ (TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs).

FIG. 3A shows X-ray photon spectroscopy (XPS) spectra of a TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs sample electrode.

FIG. 3B shows the XPS spectra associated with Ti 2p in the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs sample electrode of FIG. 3A.

FIG. 3C shows the XPS spectra associated with Sn 3d in the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs sample electrode of FIG. 3A.

FIG. 3D shows the XPS spectra associated with O 1s in the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs sample electrode of FIG. 3A.

FIG. 4A is a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image for TiO₂ on a fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) substrate, shown on the order of 2 μm.

FIG. 4B is an SEM image of the TiO₂ on the FTO substrate of FIG. 4B, shown on the order of 500 nm.

FIG. 4C is an SEM image of TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs on an FTO substrate, shown on the order of 1 μm.

FIG. 4D is an SEM image of the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs on the FTO substrate of FIG. 4C, shown on the order of 500 nm.

FIG. 5 shows a comparison of ultraviolet-visible light (UV-vis) absorption spectra of TiO₂, TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs, titanium dioxide with a cadmium sulfide (CdS) quantum dot sensitizer (TiO₂/CdS) and TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs with the CdS quantum dot sensitizer (Ti₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS).

FIG. 6A shows a comparison of current density vs. voltage (J-V) plots between TiO₂/CdS and TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS.

FIG. 6B shows a comparison of incident photon to current conversion efficiency (IPCE) as a function of wavelength between TiO₂/CdS and TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS.

FIG. 6C shows a comparison of electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) Nyquist plots between a quantum dot-sensitized solar cell (QDSSC) with a TiO₂/CdS photoelectrode and a QDSSC with a TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS photoelectrode.

FIG. 6D shows a comparison of J-V plots under a dark current between the QDSSC with a TiO₂/CdS photoelectrode and the QDSSC with a TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS photoelectrode.

FIG. 7A shows a comparison of recombination resistance (R_(rec)) plots at varying bias voltages between the QDSSC with a TiO₂/CdS photoelectrode and the QDSSC with a TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS photoelectrode.

FIG. 7B shows a comparison of chemical capacitance (C_(μ)) plots at varying bias voltages between the QDSSC with a TiO₂/CdS photoelectrode and the QDSSC with a TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS photoelectrode.

FIG. 8A shows a comparison of open-circuit voltage (V_(OC)) decay profiles between the QDSSC with a TiO₂/CdS photoelectrode and the QDSSC with a TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS photoelectrode.

FIG. 8B shows a comparison of electron lifetime (τ_(e)) between the QDSSC with a TiO₂/CdS photoelectrode and the QDSSC with a TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS photoelectrode.

FIG. 9A schematically illustrates the charge transfer pathways in the QDSSC with a TiO₂/CdS photoelectrode.

FIG. 9B schematically illustrates the charge transfer pathways in the QDSSC with a TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS photoelectrode.

Similar reference characters denote corresponding features consistently throughout the attached drawings.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

As illustrated in FIG. 1, the quantum dot-sensitized solar cell (QDSSC) 10 includes a photoelectrode 18, a counter electrode 22, and an electrolyte 20 sandwiched between the photoelectrode 18 and the counter electrode 22. The photoelectrode 18 is formed from a titanium dioxide (TiO₂) layer 12, a cadmium sulfide (CdS) quantum dot sensitizer layer 16, and a tin dioxide (SnO₂) nanograss layer 14 sandwiched between the titanium dioxide (TiO₂) layer 12 and the cadmium sulfide (CdS) quantum dot sensitizer layer 16. As non-limiting examples, the counter electrode 22 may be made of copper sulfide (CuS), and the electrolyte 20 may be a polysulfide electrolyte. As a further non-limiting example, the polysulfide electrolyte may be formed from 1 M Na₂S, 2 M S and 0.1 M KCl in methanol and water solution (7:3). The electrolyte 20 may be sealed with the photoelectrode 18 and the counter electrode 22 using any suitable type of sealant, such as Meltonix 1170-60, manufactured by Solaronix SA of Switzerland.

In order to prepare photoelectrode 18, prior to the deposition, fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO, 13Ω sq⁻²) glasses (1.3×1.5 cm²) were washed with acetone, ethanol and deionized (DI) water for 10 minutes each. Mesoporous TiO₂ electrodes were prepared by doctor-blading a TiO₂ paste (20 nm diameter, manufactured by Solaronix SA of Switzerland) onto the FTO substrates. The samples were maintained at 450° C. for 30 minutes. Then, tin dioxide nanograss (SnO₂ NGs) layer 14 was grown on the TiO₂ surface via a facile chemical bath deposition (CBD) reaction. Particularly, 0.05 M SnCl₂.2H₂O and 0.15 M hexamethylenetetramine (HMTA) were mixed in 70 mL of DI water under magnetic stirring for 30 minutes. The as-prepared TiO₂ samples were dipped horizontally into the SnO₂ growth solution and heated at 95° C. for 10 h. The HMTA in the precursor solution not only serves as a surfactant by reducing the surface tension between the growth solution and the substrate, but it also supports the growth of the SnO₂ layer. After deposition, the SnO₂ NGs loaded FTO/TiO₂ films were rinsed with DI water and ethanol, and then heated at 450° C. for 30 mins, producing TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs electrodes.

Next, the cadmium sulfide quantum dots (CdS QDs) were loaded on the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs by a facile successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR) method. Particularly, the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs films were dipped in aqueous 0.1 M Cd(CH₃COO)₂.2H₂O solution for 5 mins, rinsed with ethanol, then dipped in aqueous 0.1 M Na₂S solution for 5 mins, and then again rinsed with ethanol. This process is a single SILAR cycle, and a total of eight SILAR cycles were repeated to produce TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS films. Photoelectrode 18 can be formed from the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS film on the FTO substrate.

The CuS counter electrodes 22 were prepared on FTO substrates using a CBD method. The QDSSCs 10 were formed by sandwiching the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS photoelectrodes 18 and the CuS counter electrodes 22 using a sealant (Meltonix 1170-60, manufactured by Solaronix SA of Switzerland) with the polysulfide electrolyte 20. In experiments, polysulfide electrolyte 20 was formed from 1 M Na₂S, 2 M S and 0.1 M KCl in a methanol and water solution (7:3).

As will be discussed in detail below, the crystalline phase, elemental analysis and morphology of the electrodes were investigated using X-ray diffraction (XRD) with a D/max 2400 X-ray diffractometer manufactured by Rigaku® of Japan, X-ray photon spectroscopy (XPS) using an ESCALAB 250 analyzer manufactured by Thermo Scientific® of Massachusetts, and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) using an S-2400 model SEM, manufactured by Hitachi® of Japan, with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX, 15 kV) mapping characterizations. The optical absorption properties of the as-prepared electrodes were analyzed by UV-visible absorption spectra using a 3220UV UV-vis spectrophotometer manufactured by Optizen. The photocurrent-voltage (J-V) measurements were conducted using a solar simulator manufactured by Abet Technologies, which exhibits an intensity of 100 mW cm⁻². Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was carried out using an SP-150 electrochemical workstation manufactured by BioLogic, with a frequency range of 500 kHz to 0.1 Hz and an AC amplitude of 10 mV.

The XRD patterns of the as-prepared TiO₂ and TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs are shown in FIG. 2. As seen in FIG. 2, both the TiO₂ and TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs samples exhibit peaks at 20=25.1°, 37.5°, 47.8°, 53.9° and 62.3, which are well-matched with the TiO₂ tetragonal anatase structure (JCPDS:21-1272). After the deposition of SnO₂ over the TiO₂ surface, new diffraction peaks were observed at 2θ=26.7°, 33.6°, 51.9°, 54.9°, 61.5° and 65.8°, which are consistent with the SnO₂ tetragonal structure (JCPDS:41-1445).

XPS characterization was performed to investigate the valence states of elements in the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs electrode. The XPS survey spectra of the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs sample is shown in FIG. 3A, which clearly shows the presence of only Ti, Sn, O and C elements. The presence of the carbon element in the total survey scan spectrum is ascribed to the exposure of the sample to air. As shown in FIG. 3B, the XPS spectrum of Ti 2p exhibits the Ti 2p_(3/2) and Ti 2p_(1/2) peaks that are centered at 458.7 eV and 464.5 eV, respectively. These spectra are consistent with the presence of a Ti⁴⁺ valence state. Due to the spin-orbit coupling of Ti 2p, the obtained peaks are separated by 5.8 eV. The Sn 3d spectrum shown in FIG. 3C exhibits two peaks at 486.8 eV and 495.3 eV, which are indexed to Sn 3d_(5/2) and Sn 3d_(3/2), respectively, and agree with the Sn⁴⁺ state in SnO₂. As shown in FIG. 3D, the spectrum of O 1s displays a peak that is centered at 530.9 eV, corresponding to O₂ in the TiO₂ and SnO₂ crystal lattices. The XRD and XPS results confirmed the formation of SnO₂ NGs on the TiO₂ surface.

The surface morphologies of the as-prepared TiO₂ and TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs electrodes were studied using SEM analysis, and the corresponding images are shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B for TiO₂ on a FTO substrate, and in FIGS. 4C and 4D for SnO₂ on the TiO₂ surface (TiO₂/SnO₂) NGs. As shown in FIG. 4A, the TiO₂ nanoparticles are uniformly distributed throughout the substrate. It can be clearly seen from FIG. 4B, that the TiO₂ exhibits spherical nanoparticle morphology with diameters in the range of ˜16 to ˜20 nm. As discussed above, the CBD method was used to grow the SnO₂ nanostructures on the surface of the TiO₂. It can be clearly observed in FIG. 4C that the SnO₂ exhibits the nanograss (NGs) morphology. The diameter of the SnO₂ NGs was estimated to be in the range of ˜21 to ˜46 nm (FIG. 4D). The SEM images clearly reveal that the SnO₂ NGs nanostructures were successfully grown on the TiO₂ surface. In addition, SEM-EDX color mapping was carried out to examine the distribution of elements in the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs, revealing the homogeneous distribution of Ti, Sn and O elements in the as-prepared TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs electrode.

UV-vis absorption measurements were carried out to demonstrate the optical properties of the TiO₂, TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs, TiO₂/CdS and TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS samples, and the results are plotted in FIG. 5 in the range of 300 to 800 nm. The TiO₂ sample exhibits an absorption edge at around 378 nm. The growth of SnO₂ NGs on the TiO₂ surface increased the absorption intensity. In addition, the absorption onset of TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs increased to 388 nm. The absorption onsets of the TiO₂/CdS and Ti₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS samples were measured to be 510 nm and 525 nm, respectively. The absorption onset of the Ti₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS electrode was increased and had a higher absorbance when compared to Ti₂/CdS. These observations can be attributed to the growth of SnO₂ NGs passivation/barrier layer over the TiO₂ surface. Further, the SnO₂ NGs interlayer supports the nucleation and growth of CdS QDs, which results in the high rate of absorption of the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS electrode.

To evaluate the impact of the SnO₂ NGs interlayer on the photoanodes, the photovoltaic behaviors of TiO₂/CdS and TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS-based QDSSCs were investigated. The J-V profiles of the as-fabricated QDSSCs were measured under one sun illumination, and the related photovoltaic considerations are shown in FIG. 6A and Table 1 below. The TiO₂/CdS QDSSC exhibits a short-circuit current density (J_(SC)) of 6.64 mA cm⁻², an open circuit voltage (V_(OC)) of 0.614 V, and a fill factor (FF) of 0.530, resulting in a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 2.16%. When a SnO₂ NGs layer was grown on a TiO₂ surface (TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS), the J_(SC), V_(OC) and FF were considerably improved to 8.92 mA cm², 0.619 V, and 0.570, respectively, resulting in an elevated PCE of 3.15%, which is much higher than the PCE of a TiO₂/CdS (2.16%) photoelectrode. The enhanced V_(OC) and J_(SC) of the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS-based QDSSCs are attributed to the reduced charge recombination and the fast charge transfer at the TiO₂/QDs/electrolyte interfaces. Thus, the PCE of the QDSSC has improved from 2.16% to 3.15% by the growth of the SnO₂ NGs interlayer over the TiO₂ surface. Furthermore, an incident photon to current conversion efficiency (IPCE) study was carried out to illustrate the light absorption and electron generation behaviors in the QDSSCs. FIG. 6B shows the IPCE plots of the as-prepared QDSSCs. It can be seen from the IPCE spectra that the introduction of the SnO₂ NGs interlayer enhanced the IPCE response from 66% to 75% and also enlarged the IPCE response edge from 548 nm to 568 nm. The TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS-based QDSSCs exhibit a higher IPCE response than the TiO₂/CdS, which is in good agreement with the J_(SC) of the J-V plots.

TABLE 1 Photovoltaic parameters of QDSSCs based on TiO2/CdS and TiO2/SnO2 NGs/CdS photoelectrodes under one sun illumination V_(OC) J_(SC) (mA PCE τ_(e) (V) cm⁻²) FF % R_(ct) (Ω) C_(μ) (μm) (ms) TiO₂/CdS 0.614 6.64 0.530 2.16  8.78 1358 11.92 TiO₂/SnO₂ 0.619 8.92 0.570 3.15 27.94 2183 60.99 NGs/CdS

In order to demonstrate the impact of the SnO₂-NGs interlayer on the photoelectrode films, electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements were conducted under forward bias (V_(OC)) and illumination. The Nyquist plots of the TiO₂/CdS and TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS-based QDSSCs are shown in FIG. 6C. The Nyquist plots of both devices exhibit the two semicircle-type shapes, in which the first (small) semicircle is obtained in the high-frequency region and represents the charge transfer resistance (R_(CE)), the chemical capacitance (C_(CE)) at the interface of the counter electrode/electrolyte, and the series resistance (R_(S)) which is obtained in the high-frequency region, where the phase is zero. The recombination resistance (R_(ct)) at the TiO₂/QD/electrolyte interface and the chemical capacitance (C_(μ)) indexed to the bigger semicircle, which is obtained at mid/low frequency. Based on the equivalent circuit model (inset of FIG. 6C) and using Z-view software, the Nyquist plots were fitted to obtain the R_(ct) values, and the fitting results are summarized in Table 1 above. There is no considerable change in the R_(CE), which is due to the usage of similar electrolytes and counter electrodes in the fabrication of the QDSSCs. However, the R_(ct) of the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS-based QDSSC (27.94 Ωcm²) is much higher than that of the TiO₂/CdS (8.78 Ωcm²). The higher Ra of the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS-based QDSSC demonstrates that the growth of SnO₂ NGs over the TiO₂ surface successfully suppresses the electron recombination at the TiO₂/QDs/electrolyte interfaces. Thus, the growth of the SnO₂ NGs interlayer hinders the interfacial charge recombination and enhances the photovoltaic performance (J_(SC) and FF). Moreover, the QDSSC based on the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS photoelectrode achieves higher C_(μ) (2183 μF) than that of the TiO₂/CdS (1358 μF) system. The higher C_(μ) of the Ti₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS system demonstrates the improved collection of photo-excited electrons into the conduction band of the photoanode, which is mainly due to the hindered recombination at the TiO₂/QDs/electrolyte interfaces. Further, the electron life time (τ_(c)) of the QDSSCs can be obtained as τ_(c)=R_(ct)×C_(μ). It should be noted that the T of the TiO₂/CdS with SnO₂ NGs interlayer (60.99 ms) is much higher than that of the SnO₂ NGs-free device (11.92 ms), which reveals the higher charge collection efficiency of the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS system.

Under dark conditions, the J-V plots of the TiO₂/CdS and TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS-based QDSSCs were obtained and are shown in FIG. 6D. The electron recombination occurs at the interfaces of TiO₂/QDs and TiO₂/electrolyte, and this is the source of the dark current. Thus, a dark current study is a useful indicator of charge recombination. With the introduction of the SnO₂ NGs interlayer, the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS device delivers the reduced dark current, which is lower compared with that of the TiO₂/CdS device. The reduction of the dark current arose from an enhancement in electron transport with a decrease in the internal resistance. As a result, the electron recombination was effectively reduced by the introduction of the SnO₂ NGs interlayer, and this contributed to the enhanced current and decreased electron loss.

Furthermore, to investigate the impact of the SnO₂ NGs interlayer on the performance of the QDSSCs, EIS tests were conducted at various bias applied voltages under dark conditions in the 500 kHz to 100 mHz frequency range. The obtained recombination resistance (R_(rec)) and chemical capacitance (C_(μ)) from the corresponding EIS tests are shown in FIGS. 7A and 7B, respectively. The R_(rec) and C_(μ) reveal that the charge recombination process occurs at the TiO₂/QDs/electrolyte interfaces. A higher R_(rec) represents the low recombination rate and greater C_(μ) values denote the Fermi level upward shift, yielding the enhanced V_(OC). It can be seen from FIG. 7A that the R_(rec) values of both devices decrease with the increment of the forward bias voltage due to the increased Fermi level of TiO₂ at the forward bias. Also, TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS QDSSCs exhibit higher R_(rec) values than the Ti₂/CdS device under identical bias voltages. The recombination rate is inversely proportional R_(rec). Moreover, the higher C_(μ) values of the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS device denote the upward shift of the Fermi level of TiO₂, resulting in a large V_(OC). These EIS studies reveal the reduced recombination rate for the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS device, which is favorable for the improved J_(SC) and FF.

The excited electrons life time was examined using the open-circuit voltage (V_(OC)) decay studies with time. Initially, the QDSSCs were irradiated with one sun illumination to a steady voltage, then the illumination was turned off and the V_(OC) decay data was obtained. FIG. 8A shows the V_(OC) decay profiles of the TiO₂/CdS and TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS-based QDSSCs. The V_(OC) decay plots clearly exhibit the continued monitoring of V_(OC) values under illumination and approach to decay after switching off the illumination. It is evident from the V_(OC) decay plots that the TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS-based QDSSCs exhibit a slower voltage decay rate than the TiO₂/CdS photoanode. This behavior is mainly attributed to the SnO₂ NGs interlayer, which efficiently suppresses the charge recombination at the Ti₂/QDs/electrolyte interfaces and also promotes efficient electron transfer. Further, the electron life time (τ_(e)) can be estimated as

${\tau_{e} = {{- \left( \frac{k_{B}T}{e} \right)}\left( \frac{{dV}_{OC}}{dt} \right)^{- 1}}},$ where k_(B), T and e are the Boltzmann constant, temperature and electron charge, respectively. FIG. 8B shows the plot of electron life time (τ_(e), in log sign) as a function of V_(OC). The TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS-based QDSSCs deliver longer τ_(e) values than that of TiO₂/CdS, implying a suppressed recombination of the photo-generated electrons, leading to the efficient charge transfer, which agrees well with the EIS analysis.

FIGS. 9A and 9B show the impact of the SnO₂ NGs interlayer on the charge transfer mechanism in QDSSCs. As shown in FIG. 9A, upon illumination, CdS captures the photons and produces the electron-hole pairs (i.e., the excitons). Then, the electrons transfer into the TiO₂ conduction band, while the holes are reduced by the polysulfide electrolyte. Simultaneously, the possibility of charge recombination also takes place at the interfaces of TiO₂/CdS QDs/electrolyte, which results in poor photovoltaic performance. Thus, the SnO₂ NGs interlayer is introduced between the TiO₂ and CdS QDs (TiO₂/SnO₂ NGs/CdS) to prevent the charge recombination (FIG. 9B). The introduction of the SnO₂ NGs interlayer on the TiO₂ surface retards the back injection of the electron from the TiO₂ to the QDs, and also prevents the injection of the excited electron from the TiO₂ to redox couple, resulting in the high photovoltaic performance. Therefore, introducing the SnO₂ NGs interlayer over the TiO₂ surface achieves desirable properties, such as a wide solar light-harvesting ability, and an enhanced charge transfer and suppressed charge recombination at the TiO₂/QDs/electrolyte interfaces.

It is to be understood that the quantum dot-sensitized solar cell and the method of making the same are not limited to the specific embodiments described above, but encompasses any and all embodiments within the scope of the generic language of the following claims enabled by the embodiments described herein, or otherwise shown in the drawings or described above in terms sufficient to enable one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the claimed subject matter. 

We claim:
 1. A method of making a quantum dot-sensitized solar cell, comprising the steps of: providing a photoelectrode, the photoelectrode being made by the steps consisting of: applying a titanium dioxide paste on a fluorine-doped tin oxide substrate; heating the titanium dioxide paste and the fluorine-doped tin oxide substrate to form a mesoporous titanium dioxide electrode; growing tin dioxide nanograss on the mesoporous titanium dioxide electrode using chemical bath deposition to form a pre-loaded electrode, wherein growing the tin dioxide nanograss on the mesoporous titanium dioxide electrode comprises the steps of: mixing SnCl2.H2O and hexamethylenetetramine to form a tin dioxide growth solution; dipping the mesoporous titanium dioxide electrode in the tin dioxide growth solution; and heating the mesoporous titanium dioxide electrode and the tin dioxide growth solution; loading cadmium sulfide quantum dots on the pre-loaded electrode using successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction cycles to form a photoelectrode, wherein each said ionic layer adsorption and reaction cycle comprises: dipping the pre-loaded electrode in an aqueous Cd(CH3COO)2.2H2O solution; rinsing the pre-loaded electrode with ethanol; dipping the pre-loaded electrode in a Na2S solution; and rinsing the pre-loaded electrode with ethanol; providing a counterelectrode; and sandwiching an electrolyte between the photoelectrode and the counter electrode.
 2. The method of making a quantum dot-sensitized solar cell as recited in claim 1, wherein the step of heating the titanium dioxide paste and the fluorine-doped tin oxide substrate comprises heating the titanium dioxide paste and the fluorine-doped tin oxide substrate at 450° for 30 minutes.
 3. The method of making a quantum dot-sensitized solar cell as recited in claim 1, wherein the step of loading the cadmium sulfide quantum dots on the pre-loaded electrode comprises eight successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction cycles.
 4. The method of making a quantum dot-sensitized solar cell as recited in claim 1, wherein the counter electrode is a copper sulfide counter electrode.
 5. The method of making a quantum dot-sensitized solar cell as recited in claim 1, wherein the step of sandwiching the electrolyte between the photoelectrode and the counter electrode comprises sandwiching a polysulfide electrolyte between the photoelectrode and the counter electrode. 